Personal Counseling: Theory of Change Essay -- Psychology

Over the last 100 years, the underpinning concepts in the fields of psychology and counseling were wrought. Within this period, these concepts have transformed and evolved from somewhat crude conceptions of the psyche toward more holistic interventions and approaches. As the profession continues to move forward, adaptations of the original theorists regarding the nature of man and the development of personality continue to emerge. These adaptations, along with the integration of new concepts and ideas, continue to contribute to the field. The author describes his view of man and human nature, personality development, and explores potential implications for counseling. Nature of Man The work of Sigmund Freud continues to influence contemporary practice, as many of his basic concepts remain the foundation from which other theorists develop. Freud described life instincts, a central tenant of the Freudian approach, as instincts that serve the purpose of survival for man as well as the human race. Glasser’s Choice Theory maintains that human behavior is internally motivated by five genetic impulses. The first noted among these impulses is survival (Skeen, 2002; Wubbolding, 2005). Man is a carnal being, sharing the same defensive and predatory instincts found throughout the animal kingdom. Man has basic needs and is driven towards satisfying them. When examining the development of the human brain, it is known the first portion to develop is the cerebellum. The cerebellum is the seat of human life support systems and our natural instincts. Sharing the fight or flight responses, the experience of apprehension towards looming animals or objects, and a need to live and reproduce are innate. These all may be experienced to differen... ... Journal of Individual Psychology, 38(1), 1-6. Adler, K. A. (1994). Socialist influences on Adlerian psychology. Individual Psychology, 50(2), 131-141. Day, S. X. (2008). Theory and design in counseling and psychology. Boston: Lahaska. Manaster, G. J. (1987). Adlerian theory and movement. Individual Psychology, 43(3), 280-287. Minor, J. (2007). Some reasons why I use REBT in my private practice and personal life. ETC: A Review of General Semantics, 320-323. Shaughnessy, M. F., & Mahan, V. (2002). An interview with Albert Ellis about rational emotive behavior therapy. North American Journal of Psychiatry, 4(3), 355-366. Skeen, J. W. (2002). Choice theory, virtue ethics, and the sixth need. International Journal of Reality Therapy, 21(1), 14-19. Wubbolding, R. E. (2005). The power of belonging. International Journal of Reality Therapy, 24(2), 43-44.

Knowledge of the business Essay

Another research study, by Michael J. P. Whyte (2004), called Enterprise Architecture – the Key to Benefits Realization, stresses the importance of being aware of exactly what the business is about before change management can be implemented. Whyte (2004) discusses why business who have installed increasing amounts of computing hardware and software over the last three or four decades have not been able to realize the expected benefits (p. 2). In his study, Whyte outlines the following contributing factors that have lead to such non-realization of benefits: ? Manner in which IS projects proceed. Whyte criticizes most projects for merely being stuck in the discovery phase of the project. This involves simply defining the current situation, systems or processes. During the discovery phase of a project, certain architecture-like artefacts are produced, such as process diagrams, entity relationship diagrams, and infrastructure diagrams, all of which form the basis for the new project. According to Whyte, the fundamental problems with these artefacts are that they are created within the context of the project, and are thus seldom correct and almost never complete. They deal with the aggregates found in the current situation and do not identify the primitives upon which the new architecture must be based. As a result, these â€Å"artefacts† are not maintained and extended after the project is completed, precisely because they were based on the current situation prior to implementation of the project (Whyte, 2004, p. 3). ? The silver bullet mentality According to Whyte, this is another major obstacle in benefits realization. Whyte criticizes how vendors offer the latest and greatest hardware, the newest and most complete software suite, or the most up-to-date methodology to help companies in implementing their benefits realization programs. The problem with these offers, according to Whyte, is that they do not fit together. They cannot fit into any overall scheme which satisfies a particular organization’s needs since the organization’s needs are undefined in the first place (Whyte, 2004, p. 4). Whyte recommends what is called Enterprise Architecture to deal with the two factors identified above. Enterprise Architecture helps the organization to full define its current state and to precisely determine the things that need to be changed. All aspects of the propose change can be quickly assess and the results can be analysed and quantified. Enterprise Architecture involves both the integration of the business aspect and IS in change management. It provides a means to capture the knowledge which makes the business work, and makes this knowledge available for the ongoing benefit of the business. In other words, it provides a blueprint of the business, a complete picture of the business and all the components which make the business work. Such knowledge is quantified and captured as data so that it can produce information to be used by another person in a company, making change management thus not person or individual-centred. When a person who instigated the change management leaves, his or her replacement can easily pick up where he left off since knowledge of how the business works is readily available (Whyte, 2004, pp. 4-6). In obtaining this knowledge, Enterprise Architecture involves the use of the Zachman Framework. This framework involves the use of thirty models which are required to fully define an enterprise. Each model must be explicitly recognized and implemented. According to Whyte, â€Å"Each row of the Zachman Framework takes a unique perspective of the enterprise (planner, owner, designer, builder, subcontractor). Each column deals with a primitive interrogative (what, how, where, who, when, why). Each of the thirty intersections of these rows and columns identifies a unique model of the enterprise. Each model is unique – it is not an elaboration of a higher level model. Each higher level row provides requirements for the row beneath, but each perspective, hence, each model is unique† (Whyte, 2004, p. 6). â€Å"All models in a column are related by a fundamental meta-model (entity-relationship, function-argument, node-link, agent-work, time-cycle, ends-means). As the models are developed ‘as is’ for an enterprise, it is unavoidable that discontinuities will be discovered between the higher level models (planner’s and owner’s perspective) and the lower level models (builder’s and sub-contractor’s perspective). This is because current corporate systems have usually been built starting at the lowest levels with no regard to the higher level models. So naturally, the functioning enterprise is NOT a true representation of what the corporate management desires† (Whyte, 2004, p. 7). In other words, Whyte recommends Enterprise Architecture as the means to bind an organization’s business side and IS side into a fully functional whole entity. Knowledge of the entire enterprise, from top to bottom, is necessary in order to determine not only the current situation but the framework on which change management should be based on.

Definition and Examples of Broadening in English

Broadening is a type of semantic change by which the meaning of a word becomes broader or more inclusive than its earlier meaning. Also known as semantic broadening, generalization, expansion, or extension. The opposite process is called semantic narrowing, with a word taking on a more restricted meaning than it had before. As Victoria Fromkin points out, When the meaning of a word becomes broader, it means everything it used to mean and more (An Introduction to Language, 2013). Examples and Observations Broadening of meaning . . . occurs when a word with a specific or limited meaning is widened. The broadening process is technically called generalization. An example of generalization is the word business, which originally meant the state of being busy, careworn, or anxious, and was broadened to encompass all kinds of work or occupations.(Sol Steinmetz, Semantic Antics: How and Why Words Change Meaning. Random House, 2008)Cool: Sometimes the use of existing words can become broader. For example, the slang word cool was originally part of the professional jargon of jazz musicians and referred to a specific artistic style of jazz (a use that was itself an extension). With the passage of time, the word has come to be applied to almost anything conceivable, not just music; and it no longer refers just to a certain genre or style, but is a general term indicating approval of the thing in question.(Adrian Akmajian, Richard Demers, Ann Farmer, and Robert Harnish, Linguistics: An Introductio n to Language and Communication. The MIT Press, 2001)Dog and Bird: Quite a number of words have undergone semantic broadening in the history of English. The modern English word dog, for example, derives from the earlier form dogge, which was originally a particularly powerful breed of dog that originated in England. The word bird derives from the earlier word bridde, which originally referred only to young birds while still in the nest, but it has now been semantically broadened to refer to any birds at all.(Terry Crowley and Claire Bowern, An Introduction to Historical Linguistics, 4th ed. Oxford University Press, 2010)Thing, Companion, Broadcast, and Pudding: The word thing is a classic example of such broadening. In Old English and Old Norse, this word meant a public assembly. In present-day Icelandic, a language with similar Germanic roots to English, it still does. In Modern English, however, it has now been extended so much that it simply means an entity of any kind. The word companion provides another example. It used to mean someone who eats bread with you (see Italian con  with plus pain  bread); now it means someone who is with you. The word broadcast, which only a couple of centuries ago meant to sow seeds, has now, in this technological age, been extended to include the spreading of information on television and radio. Pudding, which today is usually sweet and eaten for dessert, comes from the French word boudin, meaning a sausage made with animal intestines, a meaning retained in English black pudding.(Andrew Radford,  et al.,  Linguistics: An Introduction, 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, 2009)You Guys and Sell-by Date: A recent generalization or  semantic broadening  has taken place in the phrase you guys in AmE, which is no  longer restricted to men and can refer to mixed company, or even women only. Sell-by date also shows an extended meaning (metaphor) in Kennedy kept Hoover on past his sell-by date.(Stephan Gramley and Kurt- Michael Pà ¤tzold,A Survey of Modern English, 2nd ed. Routledge, 2004)Religious Terms: - Extension or Generalization. A lexeme widens its meaning. Numerous examples of this process have occurred in the religious field, where office, doctrine, novice, and many other terms have taken on a more general, secular meaning.(David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge University Press, 2003)- An example of broadening of meaning is the change from holy day as a religious feast to the very general break from work called a holiday.(George Yule, The Study of Language, 3rd ed. Cambridge University Press, 2006)Semantic Shift and Semantic Broadening: Semantic shift represents an extension of a words meaning with the loss of its earlier meaning (e.g. pineapple no longer means fir cone in standard English).  Semantic broadening  is such extension without the loss of the original meaning. For example,  tea in most English Creoles  refers not only to the infus ion made from various leaves, but also to any hot drink.(John Holm,  An Introduction to Pidgins and Creoles. Cambridge University Press, 2000)Bleaching and Grammaticalization: Thing used to refer to an assembly or council, but in time came to refer to anything. In modern English slang, the same development has been affecting the word shit, whose basic meaning feces has broadened to become synonymous with thing or stuff in some contexts (Dont touch my shit; Ive got a lot of shit to take care of this weekend). If a words meaning becomes so vague that one is hard-pressed to ascribe any specific meaning to it anymore, it is said to have undergone bleaching. Thing and shit above are both good examples. When a words meaning is broadened so that it loses its status as a full-content lexeme and becomes either a function word or an affix, it is said to undergo grammaticalization.(Benjamin W. Forston IV, An Approach to Semantic Change. The Handbook of Historical Linguistics, ed. by Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda. Wiley-Blackwell, 2003)